From: Prenatal ethanol exposure and changes in fetal neuroendocrine metabolic programming
Species | Time | Dose | Tissues/organs | Short-term adverse effects | Long-term adverse effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Humans | ||||||
First trimester | 1–2 drinks/day* | – | Elevated spontaneous abortion | – | [23] | |
Gestational week 6–16 | 5 units@ or more alcohol/week | – | Elevated spontaneous abortion | – | [24] | |
– | 10 or more drinks /week# | – | Elevated 2–3 (females)/2–5 (males) times spontaneous abortion | – | [25] | |
Gestational week 0–20 | 4 + drinks/week | – | Elevated miscarriage | – | [26] | |
Gestational week 0–10 | 4 + drinks/week | – | Miscarriage is strongest for miscarriage occurring prior to 10 weeks of gestation; women who drank only spirits had more than a two-fold increased risk of miscarriage | – | [27] | |
Gestational week 28–36 | 100 g/week | – | Poor fetal growth is increased; IUGR | – | [29] | |
Throughout pregnancy | Three drinks or more | – | Decreased birthweight | – | [30] | |
First trimester | Four drinks/week | – | Reduction in fetal growth | – | [31] | |
Gestational months 1 and 7 | Low-to-moderate drinking | – | IUGR, preterm delivery, low birthweight | – | [32] | |
Gestational weeks 20–44 | 1–2, 3–4, and ≥ 5 drinks/week | – | SGA, interaction between prenatal alcohol consumption and smoking | – | [33] | |
Mice | ||||||
GD8–11, 14–16 | 5 g/kg | Brain | – | Disrupted cell proliferation, migration differentiation and communication and neurotransmission (PD4-60) | [34] | |
GD11–17 | 6.4 g/kg·d | HPA axis | IUGR, inhibition of fetal HPA axis activity | – | [35] | |
Wistar rats | ||||||
GD9–20 | 4 g/kg·d | Bone | Suppressed osteoclast differentiation | – | [36] | |
GD9–20 | 4 g/kg·d | Adrenal developmental abnormality | CORT level was decreased; partial “catch-up growth” (PW4 and 24) | [37] | ||
GD11–20 | 4 g/kg·d | Cartilage | Chondrodysplasia | “Catch-up growth”; Susceptibility to osteoarthritis (PW4 and 24) | ||
GD11–20 | 4 g/kg·d | Liver | Low body weight; hyperglycemia; hepatocyte ultrastructural changes | “Catch-up growth”; increased the susceptibility to NAFLD (PW1, 4 and 24) | [2] | |
GD 11 until term delivery | 4 g/kg·d | Hypothalamus/pituitary gland/liver | - | “Catch-up growth”; enhanced susceptibility to MS; neuroendocrine metabolic programming (PW16 and 20) | [41] | |
GD9–20 | 4 g/kg·d | Blood/pancreas | Serum glucose and insulin levels as well as pancreatic β cell mass were reduced | Pancreatic dysplasia and impaired insulin biosynthesis (PW12 and 24) | [46] | |
GD9–20 | 4 g/kg·d | Testis | Morphological abnormality; low serum testosterone | Testicular dysplasia; low serum testosterone levels (PW6 and 12) | [48] | |
GD9–20 | 4 g/kg·d | Ovary | Decreased number and proliferation of oocytes, and increased apoptosis of oocytes | Increased atretic follicles; susceptibility to premature ovarian insufficiency; decreased serum estradiol (E2) levels (PW6 and 12) | [49] | |
Sprague Dawley rats | ||||||
Throughout pregnancy | 4 g/kg·d | Muscle/pancreas | Decreased body size; inducing insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction | “Catch-up growth”; impairs glucose tolerance (at 4. 7 and 13 weeks of age) | [8] | |
Throughout 21 days of gestation | 15%, 25%, or 36% ethanol-derived calories | Skeleton | Decreased fetal body weight, length, and skeletal ossification; growth retardation; restricted bone development; increased offspring risk of osteoporosis later in life | – | [47] | |
GD11-20 | 35% of daily calories from ethanol | – | – | Enhanced ethanol intake and the behavioral response to ethanol odor in adult (PD30-90) | [50] | |
Guinea pigs | ||||||
Throughout gestation | 4 g/kg·d | Prefrontal cortex/liver | – | Increased liver weight; metabolic dysregulation; neurobehavioral teratogenicity (PD150-200) | [44] | |
Throughout gestation | 4 g/kg·d | Adiposity/ pancreas | Growth restriction at birth | “Catch-up growth”; increased visceral and subcutaneous adiposity; reduced insulin production and/or secretion(PD100-140 and 150–200) | [45] | |
GD2–67 | 4 g/kg·d | Hippocampus | – | Behavioral and cognitive deficits (PD60) | [51] | |
Sheep | ||||||
GD95-133 | 0.75 g/kg | Kidneys | Reduction in nephron endowment | – | [52] | |
GD9-135 | 0.75 g/kg | Lung | Surfactant phospholipid concentration was reduced and the composition was altered by ethanol exposure | The adverse effects of ethanol exposure on lung do not persist to 2 month after birth | [53] |