Table 1 Short- and long-term adverse effects on offspring of PEE

Humans

First trimester

1–2 drinks/day*

–

Elevated spontaneous abortion

–

[23]

Gestational week 6–16

5 units^@ or more alcohol/week

–

Elevated spontaneous abortion

–

[24]

–

10 or more drinks

/week^#

–

Elevated 2–3 (females)/2–5 (males) times spontaneous abortion

–

[25]

Gestational week 0–20

4 + drinks/week

–

Elevated miscarriage

–

[26]

Gestational week 0–10

4 + drinks/week

–

Miscarriage is strongest for miscarriage occurring prior to 10 weeks of gestation; women who drank only spirits had more than a two-fold increased risk of miscarriage

–

[27]

Gestational week 28–36

100 g/week

–

Poor fetal growth is increased; IUGR

–

[29]

Throughout pregnancy

Three drinks or more

–

Decreased birthweight

–

[30]

First trimester

Four drinks/week

–

Reduction in fetal growth

–

[31]

Gestational months 1 and 7

Low-to-moderate drinking

–

IUGR, preterm delivery, low birthweight

–

[32]

Gestational weeks 20–44

1–2, 3–4, and ≥ 5 drinks/week

–

SGA, interaction between prenatal alcohol consumption and smoking

–

[33]

Mice

GD8–11, 14–16

5 g/kg

Brain

–

Disrupted cell proliferation, migration differentiation and communication and neurotransmission (PD4-60)

[34]

GD11–17

6.4 g/kg·d

HPA axis

IUGR, inhibition of fetal HPA axis activity

–

[35]

Wistar rats

GD9–20

4 g/kg·d

Bone

Suppressed osteoclast differentiation

–

[36]

GD9–20

4 g/kg·d

Adrenal developmental abnormality

CORT level was decreased; partial “catch-up growth” (PW4 and 24)

[37]

GD11–20

4 g/kg·d

Cartilage

Chondrodysplasia

“Catch-up growth”; Susceptibility to osteoarthritis (PW4 and 24)

[38, 39]

GD11–20

4 g/kg·d

Liver

Low body weight; hyperglycemia; hepatocyte ultrastructural changes

“Catch-up growth”; increased the susceptibility to NAFLD (PW1, 4 and 24)

[2]

GD 11 until term delivery

4 g/kg·d

Hypothalamus/pituitary gland/liver

-

“Catch-up growth”; enhanced susceptibility to MS; neuroendocrine metabolic programming (PW16 and 20)

[41]

GD9–20

4 g/kg·d

Blood/pancreas

Serum glucose and insulin levels as well as pancreatic β cell mass were reduced

Pancreatic dysplasia and impaired insulin biosynthesis (PW12 and 24)

[46]

GD9–20

4 g/kg·d

Testis

Morphological abnormality; low serum testosterone

Testicular dysplasia; low serum testosterone levels (PW6 and 12)

[48]

GD9–20

4 g/kg·d

Ovary

Decreased number and proliferation of oocytes, and increased apoptosis of oocytes

Increased atretic follicles; susceptibility to premature ovarian insufficiency; decreased serum estradiol (E2) levels (PW6 and 12)

[49]

Sprague Dawley rats

Throughout pregnancy

4 g/kg·d

Muscle/pancreas

Decreased body size; inducing insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction

“Catch-up growth”; impairs glucose tolerance (at 4. 7 and 13 weeks of age)

[8]

Throughout 21 days of gestation

15%, 25%, or 36% ethanol-derived calories

Skeleton

Decreased fetal body weight, length, and skeletal ossification; growth retardation; restricted bone development; increased offspring risk of osteoporosis later in life

–

[47]

GD11-20

35% of daily calories from ethanol

–

–

Enhanced ethanol intake and the behavioral response to ethanol odor in adult (PD30-90)

[50]

Guinea pigs

Throughout gestation

4 g/kg·d

Prefrontal cortex/liver

–

Increased liver weight; metabolic dysregulation; neurobehavioral teratogenicity (PD150-200)

[44]

Throughout gestation

4 g/kg·d

Adiposity/ pancreas

Growth restriction at birth

“Catch-up growth”; increased visceral and subcutaneous adiposity; reduced insulin production and/or secretion(PD100-140 and 150–200)

[45]

GD2–67

4 g/kg·d

Hippocampus

–

Behavioral and cognitive deficits (PD60)

[51]

Sheep

GD95-133

0.75 g/kg

Kidneys

Reduction in nephron endowment

–

[52]

GD9-135

0.75 g/kg

Lung

Surfactant phospholipid concentration was reduced and the composition was altered by ethanol exposure

The adverse effects of ethanol exposure on lung do not persist to 2 month after birth

[53]